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English CPH E-Book
Theory of CPH Section 1 Logical Foundation of CPH Theory
Contains: Introduction A Look at Classical physics 1st Law and Newtonian space and time Newton’s 2nd Law Newton’s 3rd Law Gravitation Galileo relativity Maxwell's Electrodynamics The Michelson-Morley Experiment The Mysterious Ether If scientific theories keep changing, where is the Truth? Quantum Mechanics Special Relativity Theoretical Basis for Special Relativity The Speed of Light is the same for all observers Physics is the same for all inertial observers Relativistic Definitions Peculiar Relativistic Effects General Relativity Principle of Equivalence Gravitational Time Dilation Black Hole Event Horizons How is a stellar black hole created? Quantum field theory Quantum electrodynamics Quantum Chromodynamics Quantum Gravity The standard model Particles that make up matter Higgs Physics How Particles Acquire Mass? What is String Theory? Why did Strings enter the story? More than just strings How many dimensions? The theory currently known as M The cosmological constant The Curvature Parameter Greatest blunder The Discovery of the Expanding Universe Properties of the Expanding Universe Big Bang The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Accelerating Universe Dark energy Why CPH Theory have propounded? Logical Foundation of CPH Theory References
Introduction; The greatest problem in theoretical physics is how quantum mechanics and general relativity are combinable? Scientists describe the universe in terms of two basic partial theories - the general relativity and quantum mechanics... The general theory of relativity describes the force of gravity and the large-scale structure of the universe. Quantum mechanics, on the other hands, deals with phenomena on extremely small scales. These two theories are known to be inconsistent with each other - they cannot both be correct. There are many ways to do combine these theories and many theories such as Loop Quantum Theory and String Theory had propounded. But Theory of CPH (Theory of Creation Particle Higgs) takes a new way. CPH Theory has reconsidered 4 theories (Classical Mechanics, Quantum Mechanics, Relativity and Higg). In fact CPH Theory is a new looking and developing of Quantum Chromodynamic. So, CPH Theory is a Sub Quantum Chromodynamic theory. In this section I will have a summary looking on these theories then restate how we are able does that. In fact we must do change our understanding of graviton. With Best Regards Hossein Javadi
A Look at Classical physics It is the great merit of Galileo that, happily combining experiment with calculation, he opposed the prevailing system according to which, instead of going directly to nature for investigation of her laws and processes, it was held that these were best learned by authority, especially by that of Aristotle, who was supposed to have spoken the last word upon all such matters, and upon whom many erroneous conclusions had been fathered in the course of time. Against such a superstition Galileo resolutely and vehemently set himself, with the result that he not only soon discredited many beliefs which had hitherto been accepted as indisputable, but aroused a storm of opposition and indignation amongst those whose opinions he discredited; the more so, as he was a fierce controversialist, who, not content with refuting adversaries, was bent upon confounding them. Throughout his life Galileo would provide some of the most compelling arguments in favor of the heliocentric model; though this brought him endless trouble in his lifetime, he was vindicated by all subsequent investigators. Isaac Newton continued Galileo’s discoveries. Isaac Newton discovered the laws that explained all phenomena known at the time, form the motion of the stars to the behavior of dust particles. It was his extremely successful model that leads people to believe that humanity was on the verge of understanding the whole of Nature.
1st Law and Newtonian space and timeOne of the most important consequences of the First Law is that it defines what we mean by an inertial frame of reference. An inertial reference frame is a reference frame where isolated bodies are seen to move in straight lines at constant velocity. An observer at rest with respect to an inertial frame of reference is called an inertial observer. The laws of physics devised by Newton take a particularly simple form when expressed in terms of quantities measured by an inertial observer (such as positions, velocities, etc.). For example, an inertial observer will find that a body on which no forces act moves in a straight line at constant speed or is at rest. All motion occurs in space and is measured by time. In Newton's model both space and time are unaffected by the presence or absence of objects. That is space and time are absolute, an arena where the play of Nature unfolds. In Newton's words, Absolute space in its own nature, without relation to anything external, remains always similar and immovable. ...absolute and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equally without relation to anything external, and by another name is called duration. A consequence of this is that a given distance will be agreed upon by any two observers at rest with respect to each other or in uniform relative motion, for; after all, they are just measuring the separation between two immovable points in eternal space. In the same way a time interval will be agreed upon by any two observers for they are just marking two notches on eternal time. Newton’s 2nd LawThe second law is of great practical use. One can use experiments to determine the manner in which the force depends on the position and velocity of the bodies and then use calculus to determine the motion of the bodies by obtaining the position as a function of time using the known form of F and the equation F = m a Note that in this equation m measures how strongly a body responds to a given force (the larger m is the less it will be accelerated); m measures the inertia of the body. Once F is known the motion of any body is predicted: by measuring the falling an apple you can predict the motion of the Moon.
Newton’s 3rd LawFor every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.
Gravitation Galileo’s law of gravitation; Heavy objects fall as fast light objects. Newton’s law of gravitation;
Every object attracts every other object,
by virtue of their having mass.
Newton's Law of Motion combined with his Law of Gravitation together embodies Galileo's Law of Gravitation. With this thought experiment Newton convincingly argued that an apple can behave in the same way as the Moon, and, because of this it is the very same force, gravity, which makes the apple fall and the Moon orbit the Earth. This is consistent with the hypothesis that gravitation is universal. In a way it represents the unification a several physical effects which appear unrelated at first sight: the falling of apples and the orbiting of planets. The gravitational force between two bodies of masses m and M separated by a distance r is attractive and directed along the line joining the bodies, its value is
Where G is a universal constant. Consider now the application of the second law to the case of the gravitational force.
So that the factors of m cancel this implies that the motion of a body generated by the gravitational force is independent of the mass of the body, just as Galileo had observed.
Galileo relativity Any two observers moving at constant speed and direction with respect to one another will obtain the same results for all mechanical experiments According Galileo relativity, infinity velocity is acceptable and velocities will sum by vector rules. In pursuing these ideas Galileo used the scientific method: he derived consequences of this hypothesis and determined whether they agree with the predictions. This idea has a very important consequence: velocity is not absolute. This means that velocity can only be measured in reference to some object(s), and that the result of this measurement changes if we decide to measure the velocity with respect to a different reference point(s). This fact, formulated in the 1600's remains very true today and is one of the cornerstones of Einstein's theories of relativity.
Maxwell's Electrodynamics Although the laws of electricity and of magnetism according to Gauss, Ampere, and Faraday worked remarkably well, there was a glaring problem: taken together, these laws did not "conserve charge". In other words, for these laws (as written) to work, one had to allow charge to be created or destroyed. And this is not a good thing. (Additionally, from the form of the equations of these theories, he noticed an interesting symmetry (a similarity) in the way the electric field and the magnetic field appeared. It wasn't a perfect symmetry, however.) Maxwell modified Ampere's Law by adding a single term to it. This was what was needed to make the laws consistent with the conservation of charge. It also made the above symmetry closer to being a perfect symmetry.
Î0 is the dielectric constant (space) and m0 is the magnetic permeability (space) However, the addition of this term led to a remarkable prediction: the existence of electromagnetic waves. With the full set of equations, Maxwell was able to calculate the speed of these waves. He found that their speed was a constant, independent of the nature of the electric and magnetic fields.
What Maxwell found was that electromagnetic waves traveled at the speed of light. Maxwell had just discovered a fundamental constant of nature: the speed of light. Maxwell equations show an electromagnetic wave exists when the changing magnetic field causes a changing electric field, which then causes another changing magnetic field, and so on forever. Unlike a STATIC field, a wave cannot exist unless it is moving. Once created, an electromagnetic wave will continue on forever unless it is absorbed by matter.
Thus, the Maxwell equations not only unify the theories of electricity and of magnetism, but of optics as well. In other words, electricity, magnetism, and light could all be understood as aspects of a single object: the electromagnetic field. Quite a remarkable achievement!
As a consequence, the Maxwell equations made the physical prediction that "light travels with the same speed, in all directions". In other words, "a spherical pulse of light will appear spherical".
The Michelson-Morley Experiment When Clerk Maxwell wrote to D.P. Todd of the U.S. Nautical Almanac Office in Washington in 1879, he inquired about the possibility of measuring the velocity of the solar system through the ether by observing the eclipses of Jupiter's moons. Roemer had used measurements of the eclipse times to obtain a number for the speed of light. Maxwell concluded that the effects he sought were too small to measure - but that assertion came to the attention of a young naval instructor named A. A. Michelson who had just been transferred to that office. In 1878, Michelson had made an excellent measurement of the speed of light at the age of 25, and he thought the detection of motion through the ether might be measurable.
Michelson proceeded to invent a new instrument with accuracy far exceeding that which had been attained to that date, and that instrument is now universally called the Michelson interferometer. In trying to measure the speed of the Earth through the supposed "ether", you could depend upon one component of that velocity being known - the velocity of the Earth around the sun, about 30 km/s. Using a wavelength of about 600 nm, there should be a shift of about 0.04 fringes as the spectrometer was rotated 360°. Though small, this was well within Michelson's capability. Michelson, and everyone else, was surprised that there was no shift. Michelson's terse description of the experiment: "The interpretation of these results is that there is no displacement of the interference bands. ... The result of the hypothesis of stationary ether is thus shown to be incorrect." The Mysterious Ether When we reached the point where we could demonstrate that light was a wave, and then it was presumed that the wave must have a medium in which to travel. All the other waves we knew about required a medium. Since no medium was apparent between the earth and the sun, it was presumed that this medium was transparent and therefore not readily observable - it was called the "ether". The popular presumption was that this ether was stationary and filled all of space. This involved the presumption that there was an absolute reference frame in the universe, and that all the movement of planets and stars was through this ether. These presumptions were part of the historical setting of the Michelson-Morley Experiment. With the interferometer which he invented, Michelson found no evidence of the ether, to his and everyone else's surprise. Michelson's terse description of the experiment: "The interpretation of these results is that there is no displacement of the interference bands. ... The result of the hypothesis of stationary ether is thus shown to be incorrect."
If scientific theories keep changing, where is the Truth?In 1666 Isaac Newton proposed his theory of gravitation. This was one of the greatest intellectual feats of all time. The theory explained all the observed facts, and made predictions that were later tested and found to be correct within the accuracy of the instruments being used. As far as anyone could see, Newton's theory was ``the Truth''. During the nineteenth century, more accurate instruments were used to test Newton's theory; these observations uncovered some slight discrepancies. Albert Einstein proposed his theories of Relativity, which explained the newly observed facts and made more predictions. Those predictions have now been tested and found to be correct within the accuracy of the instruments being used. As far as anyone can see, Einstein's theory is ``the Truth''. So how can the Truth change? Well the answer is that it hasn't. The Universe is still the same as it ever was. When a theory is said to be ``true'' it means that it agrees with all known experimental evidence. But even the best of theories have, time and again, been shown to be incomplete: though they might explain a lot of phenomena using a few basic principles, and even predict many new and exciting results, eventually new experiments (or more precise ones) show a discrepancy between the workings of nature and the predictions of the theory. In the strict sense this means that the theory was not ``true'' after all; but the fact remains that it is a very good approximation to the truth, at lest where a certain type of phenomena is concerned. When an accepted theory cannot explain some new data (which has been confirmed), the researchers working in that field strive to construct a new theory. This task gets increasingly more difficult as our knowledge increases, for the new theory should not only explain the new data, but also all the old one: a new theory has, as its first duty, to devour and assimilate its predecessors. One other note about truth: science does not make moral judgments. Anyone who tries to draw moral lessons from the laws of nature is on very dangerous ground. Evolution in particular seems to suffer from this. At one time or another it seems to have been used to justify Nazism, Communism, and every other -ism in between. These justifications are all completely bogus. Similarly, anyone who says ``evolution theory is evil because it is used to support Communism'' (or any other -ism) has also strayed from the path of Logic (and will not live long nor prosper). The cosmology based on the ideas of Galileo and Newton reigned supreme up until the end of the 19th century: by this time it became clear that Newton's laws were unable to describe correctly electric and magnetic phenomena. It is here that Einstein enters the field, he showed that the Newtonian approach does not describe correctly situations in which bodies move at speeds close to that of light (in particular it does not describe light accurately). Einstein also provided the generalization of Newton's equations to the realm of such high speeds: the Special Theory of Relativity. Perhaps more importantly, he also demonstrated that certain properties of space and time taken for granted are, in fact, incorrect. We will see, for example, that the concept of two events occurring at the same time in different places is not absolute, but depends on the state of motion of the observer. Not content with these momentous achievements, Einstein argued that the Special Theory of Relativity itself was inapplicable under certain conditions, for example, near very heavy bodies. He then provided the generalization which encompasses these situations as well: the General Theory of Relativity. This is perhaps the most amazing development in theoretical physics in 300 years: without any experimental motivation, Einstein single handedly developed this modern theory of gravitation and used it to predict some of the most surprising phenomena observed to date. of the most surprising phenomena observed to date. These include the bending of light near heavy bodies and the existence of black holes, massive objects whose gravitational force is so strong it traps all objects, including light.
Quantum Mechanics Quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of theoretical physics that replaces Newtonian mechanics and classical electromagnetism at the atomic and subatomic levels. It is the underlying framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, quantum chemistry, and particle physics. Along with general relativity, it is one of the pillars of modern physics. The term quantum (Latin, "how much") refers to the discrete units that the theory assigns to certain physical quantities, such as the energy of an atom at rest. The discovery that waves could be measured in particle-like small packets of energy called quanta led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call Quantum Mechanics. The electron was discovered in 1897. That it was not expected is illustrated by a remark made by J J Thomson, the discoverer of the electron. He said “I was told long afterwards by a distinguished physicist who had been present at my lecture that he thought I had been pulling their leg.” The neutron was not discovered until 1932 so it is against this background that we trace the beginnings of quantum theory back to 1859. In 1859 Gustav Kirchhoff proved a theorem about blackbody radiation. A blackbody is an object that absorbs all the energy that falls upon it and, because it reflects no light, it would appear black to an observer. A blackbody is also a perfect emitter and Kirchhoff proved that the energy emitted E depends only on the temperature T and the frequency v of the emitted energy, i.e. E = J (T,v) He challenged physicists to find the function J. In 1879 Josef Stefan proposed, on experimental grounds, that the total energy emitted by a hot body was proportional to the fourth power of the temperature. In the generality stated by Stefan this is false. The same conclusion was reached in 1884 by Ludwig Boltzmann for blackbody radiation, this time from theoretical considerations using thermodynamics and Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. The result, now known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law, does not fully answer Kirchhoff's challenge since it does not answer the question for specific wavelengths. In 1896 Wilhelm Wien proposed a solution to the Kirchhoff challenge. However although his solution matches experimental observations closely for small values of the wavelength, it was shown to break down in the far infrared by Rubens and Kurlbaum. Kirchhoff had been at Heidelberg, moved to Berlin. Boltzmann was offered his chair in Heidelberg but turned it down. The chair was then offered to Hertz who also declined the offer, so it was offered again, this time to Planck and he accepted. Rubens visited Planck in October 1900 and explained his results to him. Within a few hours of Rubens leaving Planck's house Planck had guessed the correct formula for Kirchhoff's J function. This guess fitted experimental evidence at all wavelengths very well but Planck was not satisfied with this and tried to give a theoretical derivation of the formula. To do this he made the unprecedented step of assuming that the total energy is made up of indistinguishable energy elements - quanta of energy. He wrote Experience will prove whether this hypothesis is realized in nature Planck himself gave credit to Boltzmann for his statistical method but Planck's approach was fundamentally different. However theory had now deviated from experiment and was based on a hypothesis with no experimental basis. In 1901 Ricci and Levi-Civita published Absolute differential calculus. It had been Christoffel's discovery of 'covariant differentiation' in 1869 which let Ricci extend the theory of tensor analysis to Riemannian space of n dimensions. The Ricci and Levi-Civita definitions were thought to give the most general formulation of a tensor. This work was not done with quantum theory in mind but, as so often happens, the mathematics necessary to embody a physical theory had appeared at precisely the right moment. In 1905 Einstein examined the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is the release of electrons from certain metals or semiconductors by the action of light. The electromagnetic theory of light gives results at odds with experimental evidence. Einstein proposed a quantum theory of light to solve the difficulty and then he realized that Planck's theory made implicit use of the light quantum hypothesis. By 1906 Einstein had correctly guessed that energy changes occur in a quantum material oscillator in changes in jumps which are multiples of hv where h is Planck's reduced constant and v is the frequency. E=nhv, h=6.626 times 10-34 joule-second In 1913 Niels Bohr wrote a revolutionary paper on the hydrogen atom. He discovered the major laws of the spectral lines. Arthur Compton derived relativistic kinematics for the scattering of a photon (a light quantum) off an electron at rest in 1923. However there were concepts in the new quantum theory which gave major worries to many leading physicists. Einstein, in particular, worried about the element of 'chance' which had entered physics. In fact Rutherford had introduced spontaneous effect when discussing radio-active decay in 1900. In 1924 Einstein wrote: There are therefore now two theories of light, both indispensable, and - as one must admit today despite twenty years of tremendous effort on the part of theoretical physicists - without any logical connection. In the same year, 1924, Bohr, Kramers and Slater made important theoretical proposals regarding the interaction of light and matter which rejected the photon. Although the proposals were the wrong way forward they stimulated important experimental work. Bohr addressed certain paradoxes in his work. (i) How can energy be conserved when some energy
changes are continuous and some are discontinuous, i.e. change by
quantum amounts. Einstein had been puzzled by paradox (ii) and Pauli quickly told Bohr that he did not believe his theory. Further experimental work soon ended any resistance to belief in the electron. Other ways had to be found to resolve the paradoxes. Up to this stage quantum theory was set up in Euclidean space and used Cartesian tensors of linear and angular momentum. However, quantum theory was about to enter a new area. The year 1924 saw the publication of another fundamental paper. It was written by Satyendra Nath Bose and rejected by a referee for publication. Bose then sent the manuscript to Einstein who immediately saw the importance of Bose's work and arranged for its publication. Bose proposed different states for the photon. He also proposed that there is no conservation of the number of photons. Instead of statistical independence of particles, Bose put particles into cells and talked about statistical independence of cells. Time has shown that Bose was right on all these points. Work was going on at almost the same time as Bose's which was also of fundamental importance. The doctoral thesis of Louis de Broglie was presented which extended the particle-wave duality for light to all particles, in particular to electrons. Schrödinger in 1926 published a paper giving his equation for the hydrogen atom and heralded the birth of wave mechanics. Schrödinger introduced operators associated with each dynamical variable. The year 1926 saw the complete solution of the derivation of Planck's law after 26 years. It was solved by Dirac. Also in 1926 Born abandoned the causality of traditional physics. Speaking of collisions Born wrote One does not get an answer to the question, what is the state after collision? but only to the question, How probable is a given effect of the collision? From the standpoint of our quantum mechanics, there is no quantity which causally fixes the effect of a collision in an individual event. Heisenberg wrote his first paper on quantum mechanics in 1925 and 2 years later stated his uncertainty principle. It states that the process of measuring the position x of a particle disturbs the particle's momentum p, so that
where Dx is the uncertainty of the position and Dp is the uncertainty of the momentum. Here h is Planck's constant and is usually called the 'reduced Planck's constant'. Heisenberg states that “The no validity of rigorous causality is necessary and not just consistently possible.” The uncertainty can also be stated in terms of the energy of a particle in a particular state, and the time in which the particle is in that state:
Heisenberg's work used matrix methods made possible by the work of Cayley on matrices 50 years earlier. In fact 'rival' matrix mechanics deriving from Heisenberg's work and wave mechanics resulting from Schrödinger's work now entered the arena. These were not properly shown to be equivalent until the necessary mathematics was developed by Riesz about 25 years later. Also in 1927 Bohr stated that space-time coordinates and causality is complementary. Pauli realised that spin, one of the states proposed by Bose, corresponded to a new kind of tensor, one not covered by the Ricci and Levi-Civita work of 1901. However the mathematics of this had been anticipated by Eli Cartan who introduced a 'spinor' as part of a much more general investigation in 1913. Dirac, in 1928, gave the first solution of the problem of expressing quantum theory in a form which was invariant under the Lorentz group of transformations of special relativity. He expressed d'Alembert's wave equation in terms of operator algebra.
Dirac Equation
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Photons always travel at the speed of light, but they lose energy when traveling out of a gravitational field and appear to be redder to an external observer. The stronger the gravitational field, the more energy the photons lose because of this gravitational redshift. The extreme case is a black hole where photons from within a certain radius lose all their energy and become invisible. Indeed, light in the vicinity of such strong gravitational fields exhibits quite bizarre behavior.
The event horizon is the point outside the black hole where the gravitational attraction becomes so strong that the escape velocity (the velocity at which an object would have to go to escape the gravitational field) equals the speed of light. According to the relativity theory no object can exceed the speed of light that means that nothing, not even light, could escape the black hole once it is inside this distance from the center of the black hole. A more fundamental way of viewing this is that in a black hole the gravitational field is so intense that it bends space and time around itself so that inside the event horizon there are literally no paths in space and time that lead to the outside of the black hole: No matter what direction you went, you would find that your path led back to the center of the black hole, where the singularity is found.
Massive body curves space-time so much that light cannot escape.
A common type of black hole is the type produced by some dying stars. A star with a mass greater than 20 times the mass of our Sun may produce a black hole at the end of its life. In the normal life of a star there is a constant tug of war between gravity pulling in and pressure pushing out. Nuclear reactions in the core of the star produce enough energy to push outward. For most of a star's life, gravity and pressure balance each other exactly, and so the star is stable. However, when a star runs out of nuclear fuel, gravity gets the upper hand and the material in the core is compressed even further. The more massive core of the star, the greater the force of gravity that compresses the material, collapsing it under its own weight. For small stars, when the nuclear fuel is exhausted and there are no more nuclear reactions to fight gravity, the repulsive forces among electrons within the star eventually create enough pressure to halt further gravitational collapse. The star then cools and dies peacefully. This type of star is called the "white dwarf." When a very massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel it explodes as a supernova. The outer parts of the star are expelled violently into space, while the core completely collapses under its own weight.
To create a massive core a progenitor (ancestral) star would need to be at least 20 times more massive than our Sun. If the core is very massive (approximately 2.5 times more massive than the Sun), no known repulsive force inside a star can push back hard enough to prevent gravity from completely collapsing the core into a black hole. Then the core compacts into a mathematical point with virtually zero volume, where it is said to have infinite density. This is referred to as a singularity. When this happens, escape would require a velocity greater than the speed of light. No object can reach the speed of light. The distance from the black hole at which the escape velocity is just equal to the speed of light is called the event horizon. Anything, including light that passes across the event horizon toward the black hole is forever trapped.
Quantum field theory
Quantum field theory is a branch of quantum mechanics that study of the quantum mechanical interaction of elementary particles and fields. Quantum field theory applied to the understanding of electromagnetism is called quantum electrodynamics (QED), and it has proved spectacularly successful in describing the interaction of light with matter. The calculations, however, are often complex. They are usually carried out with the aid of Feynman diagrams (named after American physicist Richard P.
)
